28 April 2021
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Serial : Migas, Sumber Daya Alam Baru dan terbarukan

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News about the Indonesian government’s policy that prohibits the export of raw nickel ore commodities, was one of most prominent topics at the beginning of 2020. However, those who are not involved much in the field of energy or chemical or metal, might not know so much about nickel. Let’s discuss further about nickel.

What is Nickel?

Nickel is one of the most abundant elements, although most of it lies within the Earth’s core, more than 3000 km below the Earth’s surface. Nickel is the product of a silvery white metal that is widely used to make stainless steel. This metal is also often used to mix with other materials to make it stronger to withstand extreme temperatures and corrosive environments. This metal is an atomic number 28 in the periodic table between the element’s cobalt and copper with the symbol of “Ni” (Mindat.org., 2021).

Due to its distinguished property, that is slowly oxidized by air at normal room temperature and is considered corrosion-resistant, historically, nickel has been used for plating iron and brass, coating chemistry equipment, and manufacturing certain alloys that retain a high silvery polish, such as German silver. About 9% of world nickel production is still used for corrosion-resistant nickel plating. Nickel has been widely used in coins, though its rising price has led to some replacement with cheaper metals in recent years.

Nickel is one of four elements (the others are iron, cobalt, and gadolinium) (Coey, et al.,1999) that are ferromagnetic at approximately room temperature. Alnico permanent magnets based partly on nickel are of intermediate strength between iron-based permanent magnets and rare-earth magnets. This metal is valuable in modern times chiefly in alloys; about 70% of world production is used in stainless steel. Around 8% is used for nickel-based and copper-based alloys, 8% for alloy steels and castings, 8% in plating and 5% in the fast-growing battery sector, including those in electric vehicles (EVs) (Treadgold, 2021) and last 1% in other applications (Nickel Institute, 2021). As a compound, nickel has a number of niche chemical manufacturing uses, such as a catalyst for hydrogenation, cathodes for batteries, pigments and metal surface treatments (Nickel Institute, 2021). In addition, from the perspective of biology, nickel is an essential nutrient for some microorganisms and plants that have enzymes with nickel as an active site (Mulrooney et al., 2003)

Although many nickel alloys, including stainless steel, do not cause health problems, the metal itself is known to possess potential to be carcinogenic. The average daily exposure does not pose a threat to human health. Most of the nickel absorbed every day by humans is removed by the kidneys and passed out of the body through urine or is eliminated through the gastrointestinal tract without being absorbed. Nickel is not a cumulative poison, but larger doses or chronic inhalation exposure may be toxic, even carcinogenic, and constitute an occupational hazard (Butticè & Claudio, 2015). In other words, nickel accumulates in soil, air, or food and water supplies and also poses a risk of poisoning if too much of it enters the human body. Nickel-plated objects sometimes provoke nickel allergy to some people that have sensitivity to it (Butticè & Claudio, 2015). Therefore, special precautions are needed to ensure the safety of people who work and come in direct contact with nickel compounds.

History of Nickel

Only a few items are made of pure nickel. In contrast, nickel has played so many supporting and stabilizing roles in industrial materials. Due to its corrosion resistance and ability to withstand extreme temperatures, nickel is usually combined with other metals to produce a stronger, shinier and more durable product. Most of all, nickel is usually used as a protective outer layer for softer metals.

Because the ores of nickel are easily mistaken for ores of silver, understanding of this metal and its use dates to relatively recent times. However, the unintentional use of nickel is ancient, and can be traced back as far as 3500 BCE. Bronzes from what is now Syria have been found to contain as much as 2% nickel (Rosenberg & Samuel, 1968). Certain ancient Chinese manuscripts suggest that “white copper” (cupronickel) was used there between 1700 and 1400 BCE. This white copper was exported to Britain as early as the 17th century, but the nickel content of this alloy was not discovered until 1822 (McNeil, 1990).

Beginning in 1824, nickel was obtained as a byproduct of cobalt blue production. The first large-scale smelting of nickel began in Norway in 1848 from nickel-rich pyrrhotite. The introduction of nickel in steel production in 1889 increased the demand for nickel, and the nickel deposits of New Caledonia, discovered in 1865, provided most of the world’s supply between 1875 and 1915. The discovery of the large deposits in the Sudbury Basin, Canada in 1883, in Norilsk-Talnakh, Russia in 1920, and in the Merensky Reef, South Africa in 1924, made large-scale production of nickel possible (McNeil, Ian, 1990).

Since the mid-19^th Century nickel has become a well-known component for coins, for instance, Dutch coins were made of pure nickel at that time. Beside the Dutch, 99.9% nickel five-cent coins were struck in Canada (the world’s largest nickel producer at the time) during non-war years from 1922 to 1981; the metal content made these coins magnetic (Royal Canadian Mint, 2008). During the wartime period 1942–1945, most or all nickel was removed from Canadian and US coins to save it for manufacturing armor. Canada used 99.9% nickel from 1968 in its higher-value coins until 2000. Some other countries in Europe, such as Switzerland and the United Kingdom also used nickel for their coins. Coins of nearly pure nickel were first used in 1881 in Switzerland. In the United Kingdom, Birmingham forged nickel coins in 1833 for trading in Malaysia.

In the United States, the term “nickel” or “nick” originally applied to the copper-nickel Flying Eagle cent, which replaced copper with 12% nickel in 1857 to 1858, then the Indian Head cent of the same alloy from 1859 to 1864. Still later, in 1865, the term designated the three-cent nickel, with nickel increased to 25%. In 1866, the five-cent shield nickel (25% nickel, 75% copper) appropriated the designation. Along with the alloy proportion, this term has been used to the present in the United States.

Current use of Nickel in General

In the 21st century, the high price of nickel has led to some replacement of the metal in coins around the world. Coins still made with nickel alloys include one- and two-euro coins, 5¢, 10¢, 25¢, and 50¢ U.S. coins, and 20p, 50p, £1, and £2 UK coins. From 2012 on the nickel-alloy used for 5p and 10p UK coins was replaced with nickel-plated steel. This ignited a public controversy regarding the problems of people with nickel allergy (Lacey, BBC Health Check, 2013).

Besides being use to make coins, here are some examples of the use of nickel mixtures (gathered from various sources):

• The manufacture of equipment and parts made from nickel alloys is often used in harsh to extreme environments, such as in chemical plants, petroleum refineries, jet engines, power generation facilities, and offshore installations;
• Medical apparatuses, cooking utensils, and cutlery are also often made of nickel-coated metal because they are easy to clean and sterilize;
• Nickel blends are used in the manufacture of rechargeable batteries for portable computers, power tools, and hybrid and electric vehicles;
• Nickel is also used to coat items to reduce corrosion and provide attractive finishes, such as in bathroom fixtures;
• Most of them are used as an alloy in the manufacture of stainless steel;
• Copper-nickel alloys are commonly used in desalination plants, which convert seawater to fresh water; and
• Used in ship propellers and turbine blades.

Based on the current trend, while nickel remains the most important component of stainless steel, it is predicted that the need for nickel in batteries will drastically increase. It is known that nickel is an important component to the manufacture of lithium-ion batteries (Li-ion batteries or LIBs) used in drones, micro-sized robots, smartphones, laptops, medical equipment, electric vehicles or EVs, such as a battery electric vehicle (BEV) and plug-in hybrid vehicle (PHEV). LIBs have several types. The main difference between the batteries is their cathode chemistry. Two of the various types of LIBs most used today are Lithium Nickel Cobalt Aluminum (LiNiCoAlO₂) or NCA and Lithium Nickel Manganese Cobalt Oxide (LiNiMnCoO₂ or NMC). Both are widely used for the needs of various electronic equipment and EVs. Another type is lithium nickel oxide (LiNiO₂ or LNO) which is used for EVs (Boxalla, et al. 2018; Scarfogliero, et al. 2018). In short, almost all of the manufacture of LIBs now relies on nickel.

It is estimated that the world’s nickel demand will increase significantly due to the growth of the LIBs industry. Because it is more economical and has a higher energy density, nickel is the raw material for making LIBs for EVs (Grieve, 2018).  An estimation shows that the amount of nickel needed for EVs batteries sold last year reached 34 kilotons. Apart from nickel, other materials required include 15 kilotons of cobalt, 11 kilotons of lithium, and 11 kilotons of manganese. By 2030, for a battery chemical mixture consisting of 10% NCA, 40% NMC 622, and 50% NMC 811, it is projected that the need for class 1 nickel (> 99% Ni) will reach 850 kilotons. Meanwhile, the demand for cobalt is 170 kilotons, lithium 155 kilotons, and manganese is 155 kilotons (International Energy Agency. 2019). Nickel consumption is increasingly important for the manufacture of EVs batteries, because technological innovations in the manufacture of EVs are less dependent on cobalt, but rely on higher levels of nickel. Major manufacturer of EVs batteries, Contemporary Amperex Technology Co. Ltd. (CATL), for example, has announced mass production of high nickel batteries. The company will produce a generation of NCM 811 batteries – which have a composition of 80% nickel, 10% cobalt and 10% manganese – which are considered to have a longer life. By adding more nickel portions, this   battery generation allows EVs to go further on a single charging system. Hence, more and more new technology innovations, particularly that related to EVs batteries or batteries in general, have relied on nickel.   

Put it simply, based on the classification of end use of nickel products according to Nickel Institute, currently there are approximately six categories of end use, with most of it being in the engineering sector.  In details, around 31% of all nickel production was designated for engineering, 22% for metal goods, 16% for building and construction, 15% for transport, 10% for electronic goods, and 4% for other uses (Nickel Institute, 2021). 

Source of Nickel

On Earth, nickel occurs most often in combination with sulfur and iron in pentlandite, with sulfur in millerite, with arsenic in the mineral nickeline, and with arsenic and sulfur in nickel galena (National Pollutant Inventory, 2021). Nickel is commonly found in iron meteorites as the alloy’s kamacite and taenite. The presence of nickel in meteorites was first detected in 1799 by Joseph-Louis Proust, a French chemist who then worked in Spain that analyzed samples of the meteorite from Argentina. He discovered the presence in them of nickel, about 10% along with iron (Calvo, 2019).

On geophysical evidence, most of the nickel on Earth is believed to be in the Earth’s outer and inner cores. Kamacite and taenite are naturally occurring alloys of iron and nickel. For kamacite, the alloy is usually in the proportion of 90:10 to 95:5, although impurities (such as cobalt or carbon) may be present, while for taenite the nickel content is between 20% and 65%. Kamacite and taenite are also found in nickel iron meteorites (Rasmussen et al., 1988).

The bulk of the nickel is mined from two types of ore deposits. The first is magmatic sulfide deposits, where the principal ore mineral is pentlandite: (Ni,Fe)₉S₈. The second is laterite, where the principal ore mineral mixtures are nickeliferous limonite, (Fe,Ni)O(OH), and garnierite (a mixture of various hydrous nickel and nickel-rich silicates). Indonesia and Australia have the biggest estimated reserves, at 43.6% of the world’s total (Statista, 2021). 

Identified land-based resources throughout the world averaging 1% nickel or greater comprise at least 130 million tons of nickel (about the double of known reserves). Based on it, within the whole world, about 60% is in laterites and 40% in sulfide deposits (US Geological Survey, 2019).

1. Magmatic Sulfide Deposits. 

Nickel mines of this type are found in temperate subtropical regions, such as Norilsk, Russia; Sudbury, Ontario, Canada; and Kambalda, Australia.

According to the US Geological Survey (2019), Magmatic sulfide deposits supply about 40% of global nickel and are currently the main source of more than half of the world’s nickel supply. Nickel deposits can develop when magma containing low amounts of silica and high amounts of magnesium is absorbed in sulfur, usually by reaction with rocks in the Earth’s crust. The sulfur-rich liquid is separated from the magma, then nickel ions, and several other elements move into it. Because sulfur-rich liquids are denser than magma, they sink and accumulate along the bottom of magma chambers, intrusions, or lava flows, where nickel-containing sulfide minerals can then crystallize.

The Sudbury Igneous Complex is Canada’s main source of nickel and the second largest source of nickel sulfide in the world. This area is considered unique because it was formed when an extraterrestrial object (possibly an asteroid or comet) hit Earth about 1,850 million years ago. The impact caused parts of the Earth’s crust to melt and form a large layer of magma in the resulting crater. Nickel-containing sulfide fluids accumulate along the bottom of the magma layer, and sulfide minerals containing nickel and copper crystallize from it.

1. Laterite Deposits

Nickel mines of this type are found in Cuba, New Caledonia, Philippine and Indonesia.

Laterite deposits constitute the main resource of about 60% of the world’s nickel (US Geological Survey, 2015). These deposits form in warm, humid, tropical or subtropical environments when igneous rocks with low amounts of silica and high amounts of magnesium are broken down by chemical weathering. Weathering removes some of the original components from the rock and creates residual deposits where elements such as nickel are concentrated.

Nickel Extraction

Nickel is often obtained through an extractive metallurgy process. It is extracted from the ore by conventional roasting and reduction processes that yield a metal of greater than 75% purity. In many stainless-steel applications, most pure nickel (75%) can be used without further purification, depending on the impurities. Traditionally, most sulfide ores have been processed using pyrometallurgical techniques to produce a matte for further refining. Recent advances in hydrometallurgical techniques resulted in significantly purer metallic nickel products. Most sulfide deposits have traditionally been processed by concentration through a froth flotation process followed by pyrometallurgical extraction. In hydrometallurgical processes, nickel sulfide ores are concentrated with flotation (differential flotation if Ni/Fe ratio is too low) and then smelted. The nickel matte is further processed with the Sherritt-Gordon process. First, copper is removed by adding hydrogen sulfide, leaving a concentrate of cobalt and nickel. Then, solvent extraction is used to separate the cobalt and nickel, with the final nickel content greater than 99%.

In regards to sulfide deposits, there are two processing lines, using pyrometallurgy (smelting) and Carbon process (Ammonia Leaching) and HPAL / PAL (High Pressure Acid Leaching). As for laterite deposits, there are also two processing lines, namely hydrometallurgy and pyrometallurgy (smelting). Hydrometallurgy is used for processing low content laterite. Low grade laterite consists of low levels of limonite and saprolite.

If you are interested to expand your business in the field of energy and minerals to Indonesia, particularly nickel or other metals and need further support and assistant to have further understanding about Indonesian mining business or have a need to contact and have a collaboration with any local Indonesian company or contact Indonesian government and officials, we Indonesia Research Institute Japan ready to support you. We will provide the best services that you need.

If you are interested to expand your business in the field of energy and minerals to Indonesia, particularly nickel or other metals and need further support and assistant to have further understanding about Indonesian mining business or have a need to contact and have a collaboration with any local Indonesian company or contact Indonesian government and officials, we Indonesia Research Institute Japan ready to support you. We will provide the best services that you need.

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